Capitalization and Punctuation

Core Rules of Capitalization

Capitalization signals to the reader where new thoughts begin and which words designate specific entities. Always capitalize the first word of every complete sentence. Additionally, capitalize proper nouns, which include the specific names of people, places, and organizations. Common nouns are generally written in lowercase, but they must be capitalized when they become part of a proper name or when another grammatical rule demands it, such as appearing at the very beginning of a sentence.

Calendar designations follow specific capitalization patterns. Always capitalize the days of the week, the months of the year, and official holidays. In contrast, do not capitalize the names of seasons unless a season begins a sentence or forms part of a proper name or title. Similarly, compass directions require careful attention to context. Capitalize compass directions when they refer to specific geographic regions, but do not capitalize them when they simply indicate general orientation or travel bearing.

Academic subjects and family terms also have distinct boundaries. Capitalize specific named academic courses, but do not capitalize general academic disciplines unless they are languages. For family relationship terms, capitalize them when they function as proper names or directly precede a person's name. Use lowercase for family relationship terms preceded by an article or possessive pronoun when they are general descriptions, but capitalize a term used with a name, as in 'my Aunt Jane.'

Capitalize formal titles immediately before a person's name and, when appropriate, in direct address; generally lowercase titles used as descriptions or following a name as appositives. In titles of publications and artistic works, capitalize the first word, the last word, and all major words. In title case, lowercase articles, coordinating conjunctions, and short prepositions unless they begin or end the title; capitalize subordinating conjunctions such as 'if,' subject to the chosen style guide. Finally, capitalize the first word of a direct quotation when the quoted material constitutes a complete sentence.